
What is Accounting - Accountancy, What is Accounts, Ideas for Accounting
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![]() Painting of Luca Pacioli, father of modern accountancy, attributed to Jacopo de'Barba. |
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Important Note
Because the material covered here and following pages is considered an introduction
to the topic of Accountancy and Accounting, there are many complexities
not presented. You should always consult with a business accounting professional
for assistance with your own specific circumstances.
So What is Accounting? Accounting Theory? Accounting is the basic
language of business. In its simplest, it is the study of communicating financial
information about a business to its owner and stakeholders. There are several types
of accounting, all of which are essential to the operation of a successful business.
The recording, verifying and reporting of the assets, liabilities and equity of
a business aid in the managerial decision-making process of businesses.
Accountancy (profession) or
Accounting (methodology)
is the measurement, statement or provision of assurance about financial information
primarily used by business managers, investors, tax authorities and other
financial decision makers to make resource allocation decisions within companies,
organizations, and public agencies.
The terms derive from the use of financial accounts. Accounting is
the discipline of measuring, communicating and interpreting financial activity.
Accounting is also widely referred to as the "language of business".
Financial accounting is one branch of accounting and historically
has involved processes by which financial information about a business is
recorded, classified, summarized, interpreted, and communicated; for public companies,
this information is generally publicly-accessible.
By contrast management accounting information is used within an organization
and is usually confidential and accessible only to a small group, mostly decision-makers.
Tax Accounting is the accounting needed to comply with jurisdictional
tax regulations.
Practitioners of accountancy are known as accountants. There are many professional
bodies for accountants throughout the world. Many allow their members to use titles
indicating their membership or qualification level.
Examples are Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA or FCCA), Chartered Accountant
(FCA, CA or ACA), Management Accountant (ACMA, FCMA or AICWA), Certified Public
Accountant (CPA) and Certified General Accountant (CGA or FCGA).
Auditing is a related but separate discipline, with two sub-disciplines: internal
auditing and external auditing. External auditing is the process whereby an independent
auditor examines an organization's financial statements and accounting records
in order to express an opinion as to the truth and fairness of the statements and
the accountant's adherence to Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), or
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), in all material respects. Internal
auditing aims at providing information for management usage, and is typically carried
out by auditors employed by the company, and sometimes by external service providers.
Accounting - accountancy attempts to create accurate financial reports
that are useful to managers, regulators, and other stakeholders such as shareholders,
creditors, or owners. The day-to-day record-keeping involved in this process is
known as bookkeeping. Accounting scholarship is the academic discipline which
studies accounting/accountancy.
Modern Accounting - Accountancy
Accounting is the process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic
information so a user of the information may make informed economic judgments and
decisions based on it.
Accounting is the degree of measurement of financial transactions which are
transfers of legal property rights made under contractual relationships. Non-financial
transactions are specifically excluded due to conservatism and materiality principles.
At the heart of modern financial accounting is the double-entry bookkeeping system.
This system involves making at least two entries for every transaction: a debit
in one account, and a corresponding credit in another account.
The sum of all debits should always equal the sum of all credits, providing a simple
way to check for errors. This system was first used in medieval Europe, although
claims have been made that the system dates back to Ancient Rome or Greece.
According to critics of standard Accounting practices, it has changed little
since. Accounting reform measures of some kind have been taken in each generation
to attempt to keep bookkeeping relevant to capital assets or production capacity.
However, these have not changed the basic principles, which are supposed to be independent
of economics as such. In recent times, the divergence of accounting from economic
principles has resulted in controversial reforms to make financial reports more
indicative of economic reality.
History of Accounting
Early History
Accountancy's infancy dates back to the earliest days of human agriculture and civilization
(the Sumerians in Mesopotamia), when the need to maintain accurate records of the
quantities and relative values of agricultural products first arose.
Simple accounting is mentioned in the Christian Bible (New Testament) in the Book
of Matthew, in the Parable of the Talents (Matt. 25:19). The Islamic Quran also
mentions simple accounting for trade and credit arrangements (Quran 2: 282).
Twelfth-century A.D. Arab writer Ibn Taymiyyah mentioned in his book Hisba
(literally, "verification" or "calculation") detailed accounting systems used by
Muslims as early as in the mid-seventh century A.D. These accounting practices were
influenced by the Roman and the Persian civilizations that Muslims interacted with.
The most detailed example Ibn Taymiyyah provides of a complex governmental accounting
system is the Divan of Umar, the second Caliph of Islam, in which all revenues and
disbursements were recorded. The Divan of Umar has been described in detail by various
Islamic historians and was used by Muslim rulers in the Middle East with modifications
and enhancements until the fall of the Ottoman Empire.
Luca Pacioli and the birth of modern Accountancy
The first book on Accounting was written by Benedetto Cotrugli (also
known as Benedikt Kotruljević), a merchant from the Republic of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik,
Croatia).
During his life in Italy he met many merchants and decided to write Della Mercatura
et del Mercante Perfetto (On Trade and the Perfect Merchant) in which he elaborated
on the principles of the modern double-entry book-keeping. He finished his lifework
in 1458. However, his work was not published until 1573, as a result of which his
contributions to the field have been overlooked by the general public.
For this reason, Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517), also known as
Friar Luca dal
Borgo
, is credited for the "birth" of accounting. His Summa de arithmetica,
geometrica, proportioni et proportionalita (Summa on arithmetic, geometry, proportions
and proportionality, Venice 1494), a synthesis of the mathematical knowledge of
his time, includes the first published description of the method of keeping accounts
that Venetian merchants used at that time, known as the double-entry accounting
system.
Although Pacioli codified rather than invented this system, he is widely regarded
as the "Father of Accounting". The system he published included most of the
accounting cycle as we know it today. He described the use of journals and ledgers,
and warned that a person should not go to sleep at night until the debits equaled
the credits!
His ledger had accounts for assets (including receivables and inventories),
liabilities, capital, income, and expenses — the account categories that are reported
on an organization's balance sheet and income statement, respectively. He demonstrated
year-end closing entries and proposed that a trial balance be used to prove a balanced
ledger. His treatise also touches on a wide range of related topics from accounting
ethics to cost accounting.
After Pacioli
The first known book in the English language on Accounting was published
in London, England by John Gouge (or Gough) in 1543. It is described as A Profitable
Treatyce called the Instrument or Boke to learn to know the good order of the kepyng
of the famouse reconynge, called in Latin, Dare and Habere, and, in English, Debtor
and Creditor.
A short book of instructions was also published in 1588 by John Mellis of Southwark,
England, in which he says, "I am but the renuer and reviver of an ancient old copies
printed here in London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, made, and set
forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Schoolmaster, who, as reappeared by his treatise, then
taught Arithmetics, and this booke in Saint Ollaves parish in Marko Lane." Mellis
refers to the fact that the principle of accounts he explains (which is a
simple system of double entry) is "after the former of Venice".
A book described as The Merchants Mirrour, or directions for the perfect ordering
and keeping of his accounts formed by way of Debitor and Creditor, after
the (so termed) Italian manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635,
contains many references to early books on the science of accountancy.
In a chapter in this book, headed "Opinion of Book-keeping's Antiquity," the author
states, on the authority of another writer, that the form of book-keeping referred
to had then been in use in Italy about two hundred years, "but that the same, or
one in many parts very like this, was used in the time of Julius Caesar, and in
Rome long before." He gives quotations of Latin book-keeping terms in use in ancient
times, and refers to "ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Roscio Comaedo"; and he adds:
"That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other for Creditor,
is manifest in a certain place, Naturalis Historiae Plinii, lib. 2, cap. 7, where
hee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus: Huic Omnia Expensa. Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta
et in tota Ratione mortalium sola. Utramque Paginam facit."
An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double-entry book-keeping was
even in existence among the Greeks, pointing to scientific accountancy having been
invented in remote times.
There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book - the second edition
in 1636, the third in 1656, and another in 1684. The book is a very complete treatise
on scientific accountancy, beautifully prepared and containing elaborate explanations.
The numerous editions tend to prove that the science was highly appreciated in the
17th century. From this time on, there has been a continuous supply of literature
on the subject, many of the authors styling themselves accountants and teachers
of the art, and thus proving that the professional accountant was then known and
employed.
Accountancy Qualifications and Regulation
The expectations for qualification in the profession of Accounting vary between
different jurisdictions and countries.
Accountants may be certified by a variety of organizations or bodies, such as the
Association of Accounting Technicians (AAT), British qualified accountancy bodies
including the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA),
Association
of Chartered Certified Accountants
(ACCA) and Institute of Chartered Accountants,
and are recognized by titles such as Chartered Management Accountant (ACMA
or FCMA) Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA or FCCA) and Chartered Accountant
(UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, India, Pakistan, South Africa, Ghana), Certified
Public Accountant (Ireland, Japan, US, Singapore, Hong Kong, the Philippines), Certified
Management Accountant (Canada, U.S.), Certified General Accountant (Canada), or
Certified Practicing Accountant (Australia).
Some Commonwealth countries (Australia and Canada) often recognize both the certified
and chartered accounting bodies. The majority of "public" accountants in New Zealand
and Canada are Chartered Accountants; however, Certified General Accountants
are also authorized by legislation to practice public accounting and auditing in
all Canadian provinces, except Ontario and Quebec, as of 2005.
There is, however, no legal requirement for an accountant to be a paid-up member
of one of the many Institutes and other bodies which are effectively a form of professional
trade union. Unlike the Law Society, which can legally stop a solicitor from practicing,
accountancy institutes do not have such authority. However, auditors are regulated.
The "Big Four" Accountancy Firms
The "Big Four auditors" are the largest multinational Accountancy firms.
-
PricewaterhouseCoopers
-
Ernst & Young
-
KPMG
- Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu
These firms are associations of the partnerships in each country rather than having
the classical structure of holding company and subsidiaries, but each has an international
'umbrella' organization for coordination (technically known as a Swiss Verein).
Before the Enron and other accounting scandals in the United States, there were
five large firms and were called the Big Five: Arthur Andersen, PricewaterhouseCoopers,
KPMG, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu and Ernst & Young.
On June 15, 2002, Arthur Andersen was convicted of obstruction of justice for shredding
documents related to its audit of Enron. Nancy Temple (Andersen Legal Dept.) and
David Duncan (Lead Partner for the Enron account) were cited as the responsible
managers in this scandal as they had given the order to shred relevant documents.
Since the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission does not allow convicted felons
to audit public companies, the firm agreed to surrender its licenses and its right
to practice before the SEC on August 31, 2002.
A plurality of Arthur Andersen joined KPMG in the US and Deloitte & Touche outside
of the US. Historically, there had also been groupings referred to as the "Big Six"
(Arthur Andersen, plus Coopers & Lybrand before its merger with Price Waterhouse)
and the "Big Eight" (Ernst and Young prior to their merger were Ernst & Whinney
and Arthur Young and Deloitte & Touche was formed by the merger of Deloitte,
Haskins and Sells with the firm Touche Ross).
Enron turned out to be only the first of a series of serious accounting scandals
that enveloped the Accounting Industry in 2002.
This is likely to have far-reaching consequences for the U.S. Accounting Industry.
Application of International Accounting Standards originating in International Accounting
Standards Board headquartered in London and bearing more resemblance to UK than
current US practices is often advocated by those who note the relative stability
of the UK accounting system (which reformed itself after scandals in the late 1980s
and early 1990s). Accounting reform of a far more comprehensive sort is advocated
by those who see issues with capitalism or economics, and seek ecological or social
accountability.
Bodies and Organizations
Accounting standard-setting bodies
-
International
-
International Federation of Accountants
- International Accounting Standards Board
-
International Federation of Accountants
-
United States
-
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) - its Statements of Financial
Accounting Standards (FAS) and Interpretations (FIN) are the level A guidance
in the GAAP hierarchy.
-
AICPA Accounting Principles Board (APB) - until 1973, the existing standards
are still level A guidance.
-
AICPA Committee on Accounting Procedure, which issued Accounting Research
Bulletins (ARB) - until 1959, the existing standards are still level A guidance.
-
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), which issues industry
audit and accounting guides as well as Statements of Positions (SOP), which are
B level guidance in the GAAP hierarchy, and Accounting Interpretations (AIN), D
level guidance.
-
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)and FASB staff announcements are C
level guidance in the GAAP hierarchy.
-
Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB).
- Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB).
-
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) - its Statements of Financial
Accounting Standards (FAS) and Interpretations (FIN) are the level A guidance
in the GAAP hierarchy.
-
Other Countries (specific)
-
Australia
- Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia.
-
Canada
- Accounting Standards Board "AcSB".
-
Germany
- Accounting Standards Committee of Germany (ASCG, in German: DRSC).
-
Ghana
- Institute of Chartered Accountants of Ghana.
-
Hong Kong
- Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants (HKICPA) (formerly known as Hong Kong Society of Accountants (HKSA)).
-
India
- Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.
-
Malaysia
-
Malaysian Accounting Standards Board.
- Malaysian Institute of Accountants.
-
Malaysian Accounting Standards Board.
-
Nigeria
- Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN).
-
New Zealand
-
Accounting Standards Review Board.
- New Zealand Institute of Chartered Accountants.
-
Accounting Standards Review Board.
-
Ireland
- Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland.
-
South Africa
- South African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA).
-
United Kingdom
- Accounting Standards Board.
-
Australia
Professional organizations
-
Association of Accounting Technicians (AAT).
-
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA).
-
German CPA Society (GCPAS).
-
CPA Australia.
-
Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia.
-
Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS).
-
Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland (ICAI).
-
Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW).
-
Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA).
-
Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CICA).
-
Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN).
-
Certified General Accountants Association of Canada (CGA).
-
Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA).
-
Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy (CIPFA).
-
Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants (HKICPA) (formerly known as
Hong Kong Society of Accountants (HKSA)).
-
Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.
-
Malaysian Institute of Accountants.
-
New Zealand Institute of Chartered Accountants.
-
Philippine Institute of Certified Public Accountants.
-
South African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA).
-
Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan (ICAP).
-
International Federation of Accountants.
-
Ordre des Experts Comptables de Tunisie.
-
Association of National Accountants of Nigeria (ANAN).
- Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN).
Government agencies
Government agencies enforce the securities laws. Public companies must file financial reports with these government agencies.
-
United States
-
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) (for public companies)
- Federal Reserve (for banks)
-
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) (for public companies)
-
Germany
- German Federal Financial Supervisory Authority (BaFin).
-
India
-
Reserve Bank of India (for banks)
- Securities & Exchange Board of India (SEBI)(for public companies)
-
Reserve Bank of India (for banks)
Oversight boards (regulators for the Accounting Industry)
Oversight boards are new, private-sector non-profit organizations that were set up after the Enron scandal to oversee the auditors of public companies.
-
United States
- Public Company Accounting Oversight Board - public companies
-
Germany
- German Auditor Oversight Commission (AOC, in German: APAK
Auditing standards-setting bodies
-
International
- International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board
-
United States
-
Public Company Accounting Oversight Board - public companies
-
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants - general
-
Government Accountability Office - recipients of federal grants
- Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA) (Information System Auditing Guideline)
-
Public Company Accounting Oversight Board - public companies
-
Australia
- AUASB - Auditing & Assurance Standards Board
-
Germany
- German Institute of Certified Public Accountants (IDW)
-
Hong Kong
- Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants (HKICPA) (formerly known as Hong Kong Society of Accountants (HKSA))
-
South Africa
- Public Accountants and Auditors Board - public companies
-
United Kingdom
- Auditing Practices Board
-
India
- Auditing & Assurance Standards Board
-
Pakistan
- Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan
Size of Market
United Kingdom
According to Accountancy Age's 2005 league table, fee income amongst the
Top 50 accounting firms in the UK rose from £6.3bn to £7.0bn. This followed two
successive years in which fee income had declined, largely a result of the sale
by some of the larger firms of their consultancy arms. As detailed in the next section,
fee income in most business areas - audit, tax, corporate finance and consultancy
- rose in the 2005 survey, with insolvency and wealth management being the only
segments where revenue fell.
PricewaterhouseCoopers remains the largest firm with fee income totaling £1,780m
followed by Deloitte (£1,350m), KPMG (£1,066m) and Ernst & Young (£945m). The
combined revenue of the Big Four accounted for £5.0bn, 72% of the fee income of
the Top 50, down from 78-79% in the years up to the 2002 survey and the third year
in succession a decline in their share has occurred.
Ernst & Young's fee income is the smallest of the largest four firms, but still
over three times that of the next largest firm, Grant Thornton. The amount of fee
income tapers off amongst the mid-tier firms so that in total there were only 25
firms that each generated more than £15m of revenue in the 2005 survey.
Business Tips
Some tips on how to avoid business failure:
-
Don't underestimate the capital you need to start up the business.
-
Understand and keep control of your finances - income earned is not the same as
cash in hand.
-
More volume does not automatically mean more profit - you need to get your pricing
right.
- Make sure you have good software for your business, software that provides you with a good reporting picture of all aspects of your business operations.
See More Information On:
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ShopMateWeb Online Cloud Based Business Database Application
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ShopMate Desktop Modules Explained - Screen Shots
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AzureMate Desktop Cloud Data Storage Explorer Software
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Software Downloads and Installations
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MotoShop Automotive Database Software
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Ideas for Business - Business Tips
- Automobile History - Automotive Fuels
Important Note
Because the material covered here and following pages is considered an introduction
to the topic of Accountancy and Accounting, there are many complexities not presented.
You should always consult with a business accounting professional for assistance
with your own specific circumstances.